====== Konstruktivizam ======

===== O konstruktivizmu =====

Suprotno stajalištima [[:learning_paradigms:behaviorism|biheviorizma]] i [[:learning_paradigms:cognitivism|kognitivizma]], konstruktivizam ((Constructivism is a term often used in different fields with many  [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism|different meanings]]))  kao [[:hr:learning_paradigms|paradigma učenja]] polazi od stajališta da je okolina osobe koja uči objektivna i stvarna te da osoba mora usvojiti principe i činjenice. Predlaže da((2))   :

  * učenje nije pasivan već **aktivan, socijalno potpomognut**  proces stvaranja znanja,
  * učenje ne može (niti treba) biti prenešeno učeniku, već ga **sam učenik mora stvoriti**,
  * učenik sam konstruira vlastite subjektivne interpretacije i **subjektivna značenja**  objektivne stvarnosti spoznajući predmet učenja,
  * učenje se odvija kroz interakciju učenikovog **prijašnjeg znjanja**  (shema znanja), ideja i iskustva,
  * učenje se odvija u određenim socijalnim, kulturalnim i jezičnim okolnostima.

Učenje discipline stoga bi trebalo:

  * usredotočiti se ne na poučavanje osnova znanja, već na **proživljavanje**  procesa i procedura stjecanja iskustva, te
  * koristiti **jezik**  kao alat koji može **pomoći u kreiranju**  učenikove konstrukcije, ali treba imati na umu da korisnici jezika stvaraju subjektivna značenja koja se temelje na njihovom iskustvu.

Iako se ideje konstruktivizma javljaju već u 18. stoljeću kod autora poput [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_Vico|Giambattista ]][[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giambattista_Vico|Vicoa]](([[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_7026/is_2_96/ai_n28125759/|Giambattista, V. De Antiquissima Italorum Sapientia. 1710.]]))   , počeo se razvijati tek 1970-ih((4)) ) i predstavio se kao paradigma, ali i kao teorija(([[http://www.amazon.com/Constructivism-Perspectives-Teachers-College-Press/dp/0807734888#reader_0807734888|Press, Teachers College. Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. Teachers College Press, 1996.]]))   . Danas se konstruktivizam u literaturi pojavljuje u brojnim varijantama(([[http://folk.uio.no/sveinsj/Constructivism_and_learning_Sjoberg.pdf|S. Sjoberg et al. Constructivism and learning. In Baker, E., McGaw, B. & Peterson P (Eds). International Encyclopaedia of Education 3rd Edition, Oxford: Elsevier, 2007.]])) , od kojih se ističu dvije(([[http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v6n3/liu/paper.pdf|Liu, C. H, and R. Matthews. Vygotsky’s philosophy: Constructivism and its criticisms examined. International Education Journal 6, no. 3: 386–399. 2005.]]))   :

  * **socijalni konstruktivizam****(social constructivism)**  (poznat još kao //osobni konstruktivizam//**(personal constructivism)**  ili //radikalni konstruktivizam//**(radical constructivism)**) izveden iz radova [[http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/|Lava Vygotskog]] i proširen radovima [[http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/jeanlave|Jeana Lavea]], [[http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/profile/?p=52&/AllanCollins/|Allana Collinsa]], [[http://www.johnseelybrown.com/|Johna Browna]] i [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld|Ernsta von ]][[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld|Glasersfelda]]((See:  [[http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/114.pdf|Ernst von Glasersfeld. Constructivism in Education. In The International Encyclopedia of Education, vol. 1, pp162-163. Oxford/New York, Pergamon Press, 1989]])) , koji navode da je znanje specifično za situaciju i ovisno o kontekstu te da socijalna okolina ima ključnu ulogu u učenju, i
  * **kognitivni konstruktivizam****(cognitive constructivism)**  (poznat i kao //realistički konstruktivizam//**(realist constructivism)**) predstavljen u radovima [[http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html|Jeana Piagea]] ili [[http://www.psych.nyu.edu/bruner/|Jeromea Brunera]], koji se, budući da se znanje ne može izravno prenositi sa osobe na osobu, fokusiraju na pojedinčevo konstruiranje znanja i učenje kroz istraživanja.
===== Teorije učenja =====

  * [[:hr:learning_theories:social_development_theory|Teorija razvoja i učenja]] - [[http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/|Lav Vygotsky (1896 - 1934)]]
  * [[:hr:learning_theories:stage_theory_of_cognitive_development|Teorija stadija kognitivnog razvoja]] - [[http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html|Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980)]]
  * [[:hr:learning_theories:situated_learning|Situacijsko učenje]] - [[http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/jeanlave|Jean Lave ]]
  * [[:hr:learning_theories:communities_of_practice|Zajednice prakse]] - [[http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/jeanlave|Jean Lave]] i [[http://www.ewenger.com/theory/|Etienne Wenger]]

===== Teorije instrukcijskih dizajna i modela učenja: =====

  * [[:hr:instructional_design:cognitive_apprenticeship|Teorija kognitivnog pripravništva]] - [[http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/profile/?p=52&/AllanCollins/|Allan Collins]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:discovery_learning|Učenje otkrivanjem]][[:instructional_design:ucenje_otkrivanjem|​]][[http://www.psych.nyu.edu/bruner/|Jerome Bruner (1915 - )]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:case-based_learning|Učenje na temelju slučajeva]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:simulation-based_learning|Učenje na temelju simulacija]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:goal_based_scenarios|Cilju usmjeren scenarij]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:problem-based_learning|Problemom usmjereno učenje]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:inquiry-based_learning|Istraživački usmjerena nastava]]
  * [[:hr:instructional_design:incidental_learning|Nenamjerno učenje]]

===== Kritike =====

Modeli konstruktivističkog instrukcijskog dizajna izloženi su u zadnje vrijeme mnogim kritikama((9))  ((10)  _FCKG_BLANK_TD_)) , najviše zbog promoviranja samo učenja otkrivanjem i instrukcijama minimalnog navođenja. Richard Mayer((11)  11) 11) 11) 11) 11) 11) 11) 11) 11) 11)  [[http://www.katharinenewman.com/Research/Desktop/amp-59-1-14.pdf|Mayer, R. Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59, 14–19. 2004.]]))  je provjerio rezultate eksperimentima učenja otkrivanjem između 1950-ih i 1980-ih i zaključio da se svakog desetljeća razvio novi, sličan pristup pod drugim imenom, ne čineći pri tome značajne razlike. Njegovim riječima,

  * "//Čisto otkrivanje nije funkcioniralo 1960-ih, nije funkcioniralo 1970-ih i nije funkcioniralo 1980-ih… Rasprava o otkrivanju se ponovila mnogo puta u obrazovanju, ali svaki put istraživački nalazi su bili u korist učenju putem vođenja.//".((12)  12) 12) 12) 12) 12) 12) 12) 12) 12) 12)  [[http://www.katharinenewman.com/Research/Desktop/amp-59-1-14.pdf|Mayer, R. Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59, p18. 2004.]]))

Kritike tvrde, da učenje otkrivanjem i instrukcijama minimalnog navođenja, iako pristupačnije učenicima((13)  13) 13) 13) 13) 13) 13) 13) 13) 13) 13) )) ,

  * može dovesti do frustracije zbog **neuspjeha**  ili **pogrešnih shvaćanja** ((14)  14) 14) 14) 14) 14) 14) 14) 14) 14) 14)  [[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED259296.pdf|Hardiman, P., Pollatsek, A., & Weil, A. Learning to understand the balance beam. Cognition and Instruction, 3, 1–30. 1986.]]))  ((15)  15) 15) 15) 15) 15) 15) 15) 15) 15) 15)  [[http://books.google.hr/books?id=YyiywUE-M0YC&pg=PA229&lpg=PA229&dq=Guided+discovery+in+a+community+of+learners.&source=bl&ots=hsp2myS7V1&sig=FpgzCX7CExWleW500RjEBiIWJa8&hl=hr&ei=pmWtTY_WDZCSOr2-keML&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Guided discovery in a community of learners.&f=false|Brown, A., & Campione, J. . Guided discovery in a community of learners. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 229–270). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1994.]])) ,
  * nije toliko **učinkovito**  kao učenje vođenjem ((16)  16) 16) 16) 16) 16) 16) 16) 16) 16) 16)  [[http://www.springerlink.com/content/m4625l377p571114/|Moreno, R. Decreasing cognitive load in novice students: Effects of explanatory versus corrective feedback in discovery-based multimedia. Instructional Science, 32, 99–113. 2004.]])) ,
  * uzrokuje **veliko kognitivno ****opterećenje** ((17)  17) 17) 17) 17) 17) 17) 17) 17) 17) 17)  [[http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/91/2/334/|Tuovinen, J. E., & Sweller, J. A comparison of cognitive load associated with discovery learning and worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 334–341. 1999.]]))  ((18)  18) 18) 18) 18) 18) 18) 18) 18) 18) 18)  [[http://dcom.arch.gatech.edu/old/Coa6763/Readings/sweller-88a.pdf|Sweller, J. Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285. 1988.]])) ,
  * daje **lošije rezultate od praktičnih primjera** ((19)  19) 19) 19) 19) 19) 19) 19) 19) 19) 19)  [[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022066303010699|Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 347–362. 1987.]]))  ((20)  20) 20) 20) 20) 20) 20) 20) 20) 20) 20)  [[http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=55241eef-3a21-4afa-9be6-6d3f53322951@sessionmgr111&vid=2&hid=126|Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59–89. 1985.]])) ,
  * rezultira **većim utroškom vremena**  bez poboljšanja u rezultatima ((21)  21) 21) 21) 21) 21) 21) 21) 21) 21) 21)  [[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8447896|Albanese, M., & Mitchell, S. Problem-based learning: A review of the literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. AcademicMedicine, 68, 52–81. 1993.]])) ,
  * ne pokazuje statistički značajno poboljšanje u znanju kada je primijenjeno u medicinskim školama((22)  22) 22) 22) 22) 22) 22) 22) 22) 22) 22)  [[http://www.med.uni-frankfurt.de/lehre/literatur/container_journal_club/effectiveness_Colliver_Volltext.pdf|Colliver, J. A. Effectiveness of problem-based learning curricula: Research and theory. Academic Medicine, 75, 259–266. 2000.]])) , i
  * da ovi nedostaci posebno vrijede za početnike((23)  23) 23) 23) 23) 23) 23) 23) 23) 23) 23)  [[http://books.google.hr/books?id=iAgmAQAAIAAJ&dq=Integrating Educational Technology Into Teaching 2nd edition&source=gbs_similarbooks|Roblyer, M. D., Edwards, J., & Havriluk, M. A. Integrating educational technology into teaching (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1997.]])) .

Iako konstruktivizam također uključuje metode učenja sa određenim stupnjem vođenja i ne samo učenje otkrivanjem te instrukcijama minimalnog navođenja, kritike tvrde da te metode i dalje ne uvažavaju dokazane prednosti vođenja, praktičnih primjera i potiču veća kognitivna opterećenja koja zatim rezultiraju u smanjenju resursa dostupnih za učenje uslijed orijentiranja traženju rješenja na određeni problem.

Važno je napomenuti da ta otkrića **ne ukazuju**  da su početne **pretpostavke konstruktivizma**, učenik sam stvara vlastite reprezentacije znanja, **pogrešne**. To ukazuje da predložene posljedice instrukcijskih dizajna, opisane u modelima učenja otkrivanjem s minimalnim vođenjem, ne moraju nužno uslijediti. Danas je uvriježeno mišljenje da se prednosti vođenja tijekom instrukcijskog procesa gube samo kada učenici posjeduju dovoljnu količinu prethodnog znanja kako bi sami stvorili smjernice za učenje((24)  24) 24) 24) 24) 24) 24)  [[http://www.cogtech.usc.edu/publications/kirschner_Sweller_Clark.pdf|Kirschner, P. A, Sweller, J. and Clark, R. E. Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational psychologist 41, no. 2: 75–86. 2006.]])) .

===== Bibliografija =====

[[http://uow.ico5.janison.com/ed/subjects/edgi911w/readings/ertmerp1.pdf|Ertmer, P. A., Newby T. J. Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4):50–72. 1993.]]

[[http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au/education/iej/articles/v6n3/liu/paper.pdf|Liu, C. H, and R. Matthews. Vygotsky’s philosophy: Constructivism and its criticisms examined. International Education Journal 6, no. 3: 386–399. 2005.]]

[[http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/EvG/papers/114.pdf|Husen, T., and T. N. Postlethwaite. Constructivism in Education. In The International Encyclopedia of Education, 1:162-163. Oxford/New York: Pergamon Press, 1989.]]

[[http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html|Constructivism at Learning Theories.]] Preuzeto 2. ožujka 2011.

[[http://folk.uio.no/sveinsj/Constructivism_and_learning_Sjoberg.pdf|Sjoberg, S. Constructivism and learning. In Sjoberg, S., E. Baker, B. McGaw, and P. Peterson. International Encyclopedia of Education 3rd Edition, Oxford: Elsevier, 2007.]]

===== Saznajte više =====

[[http://www.amazon.com/Constructivism-Perspectives-Teachers-College-Press/dp/0807734888#reader_0807734888|Press, Teachers College. Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. Teachers College Press, 1996.]]

[[http://books.google.hr/books?id=Iuow8KqWE7wC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|L. P. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds.). Constructivism in education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1995.]]

[[http://books.google.hr/books?id=G3vS8M4w5YgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|K. Tobin (Ed.). The practice of constructivism in science education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1993.]]

[[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1414735/pdf/wpa040074.pdf|Mahoney, M.J. i Granvold, D.K. (2005). Constructivism and psychotherapy. World Psychiatry, 4(2), 74-74.]]

[[http://books.google.hr/books?id=6NCq3zyWkNsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Constructivism+and+education.&hl=hr&ei=go0NTsDBIceDOr-DnJwL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Marie Larochelle, Nadine Bednarz, and James W. Garrison, Constructivism and education. Cambridge University Press, 1998.]]

[[http://www.zipaquira-cundinamarca.gov.co/apc-aa-files/33383564656335333966393533336464/Constructivism_1.pdf|Phillips, D. C. The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of constructivism. Educational researcher 24, no. 7: 5–12. 1995.]]

[[http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol5/iss3/special/raskin.pdf|Raskin, J.D. (2002). Constructivism in Psychology: Personal Construct Psychology, Radical Constructivism, and Social Constructionism. American Communication Journal, 5(3), 1-25.]]