Learning Theories

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====== Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ======


===== General =====


Cognitive theory of multimedia learning is one of the [[learning_paradigms:cognitivism#learning_theories|cognitivist learning theories]] introduced by an American psychology professor [[http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/people/faculty/mayer/index.php|Richard Mayer]] in the 1990s. This theory is a sub-theory of [[http://education.arts.unsw.edu.au/staff/john-sweller-726.html|John Sweller]]'s [[learning_theories:cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]] applied especially for multimedia learning, and therefore has many similarities with it. Basic assumption of Mayer's theory is that the **human working memory** has **two sub-components** that **work in parallel** (visual and verbal/acoustic) and that learning can be more successful if both of this channels are used for information processing at the same time. 


===== What is cognitive theory of multimedia learning? =====

Mayer's theory is based on three assumptions suggested by cognitive research(([[http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/research/agents/02.Mayer.Moreno.EPR.pdf|Mayer, RE, and R Moreno. Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational psychology review 14, no. 1: 87-99. March 2002.]]))(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mayer,+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&hl=hr&ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])):

[[  http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRcaVF1nGSYY3y-pqAPDUZVRDnN0Yz_trOQpuQXheq38cjc76Ix|{{  :images:model.png|  Human working memory model Image borrowed from: http://t0.gstatic.com/images... Click on the picture to follow the link.}}]]

  - **Dual-channel assumption** - The verbal and visual channels (similar to what Baddeley called //phonological loop system// and //visuospatial sketchpad//(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mayer,+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&hl=hr&ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]]))) in our working memory are separated and can be used for processing information simultaneously thus enhancing process of learning. The suggestion that human working memory has more sub-components firstly came from the working memory models designed by [[http://www.york.ac.uk/psychology/staff/faculty/ab50/|Alan Baddeley]] and [[http://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/ghitch.html|Graham Hitch]] in 1974(([[http://dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/Lit/Articles/BaddeleyA1974a.pdf|Baddeley, A. D., Hitch, G. J. Working Memory. In Bower, G.A. The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. 8. New York: Academic Press. pp. 47–89. 1974.]])) and reviewed by Baddeley in 1992(([[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/255/5044/556.abstract|Baddeley, A. Working memory. Science (New York, N.Y.) 255, no. 5044: 556-559. January 31, 1992.]])). These findings where further incorporated to the [[learning_theories:Dual coding theory]] by [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Paivio|Allan Paivio]](([[http://www.ebook3000.com/Mental-Representations--A-Dual-Coding-Approach_123738.html|Paivio, A. Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1986.]])) and later by Mayer and his colleagues.
   - **Limited capacity assumption** - As Miller's [[http://tip.psychology.org/miller.html|Information processing theory]] has shown, these channels have limited capacity(([[http://cogprints.org/730/1/miller.html|Miller, G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychology Review 63: 81-97. 1956.]])) and limited time((Peterson, L. and Peterson, M. Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. 1959.)) they can hold information. Too much information can therefore cause //cognitive overload//.(([[http://www.uky.edu/~gmswan3/544/9_ways_to_reduce_CL.pdf|Mayer, Richard, and Roxana Moreno. Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist 38: 43-52, March 2003.]]))
  - **Active-processing assumption** - Learning is an active process of collecting, organizing and integrating new information(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mayer,+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&hl=hr&ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])). Similarities with [[learning_paradigms:constructivism|constructivist learning]] may be noticed in this definition.

Together with [[learning_theories:cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]], which offers a more detailed description of cognitive load types and possible causes of cognitive overload, the mentioned assumptions of cognitive theory of multimedia learning form a framework and **theoretical basis** for most contemporary research on learning. This research is mostly oriented on two goals:

  * utilizing both information processing channels, and
  * managing cognitive load and avoiding cognitive overload.

Research results have revealed a number of so called [[research_results:principles and effects]] describing different phenomena related to learning, instructional aids and ways of reducing cognitive load.
===== What is the practical meaning of cognitive theory of multimedia learning? =====

As mentioned, research in frames of cognitive theory of multimedia learning and [[learning_theories:cognitive load theory]] has revealed a number of [[research_results:principles and effects]] introduced by Sweller(([[http://www.csuchico.edu/~nschwartz/Sweller_2008.pdf|Sweller, J. Human Cognitive Architecture. In Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, 369-381. Taylor & Francis, 2008.]])), Mayer(([[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mayer,+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&hl=hr&ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])), and a number of other researchers. Simplified, these principles and effects suggest that students learn better:

  * from **words and pictures** than from words alone,
  * from **animation and narration** together than only from animation or narration or on-screen text,
  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **close** rather than far from each other on the page or screen,
  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **simultaneously** rather than one after another,
  * when extraneous interesting but irrelevant material is excluded rather than included,
  * when important information in the learning material is marked or emphasized,
  * when animation or text are broken down into **smaller segments**,
  * when they are presented with worked examples before they try to solve a problem on their own,
  * when they are prompted to **self-explain** a step in a procedure,
  * when they study complex material in **collaboration** with other students,
  * when their **prior knowledge is activate**d prior to learning new material, and
  * when they receive amount of **guidance** depending on their expertise level.

All of these design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high knowledge learners, and for high-spatial learners rather than for low-spatial learners.

Still, all of the mentioned suggestions for more efficient learning should be implemented with caution, since real-life learning environments are always much more complex than laboratory conditions. For more details and research status on every of the mentioned suggestions visit the [[research_results:principles and effects]] page. 

===== Criticisms =====


Cognitive theory of multimedia learning is mostly subjected to same [[learning_theories:cognitive_load_theory&#criticisms|criticisms]] as the cognitive load theory since it is an extension of it.
===== Keywords and most important names =====

  * **Cognitive theory of multimedia learning**, **dual coding theory**, **visual and verbal/acoustic channel**
  * [[http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/people/faculty/mayer/index.php|Richard Mayer]]


===== Bibliography =====

[[http://books.google.hr/books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Mayer,+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&hl=hr&ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]]

[[http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/file/view/Mayer,+Heiser,+%26+Lonn+%282001%29.pdf |Mayer, R. E, J. Heiser and S. Lonn. Cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology 93, no. 1: 187–198. 2001.]]


===== Read more =====

[[http://www.simplypsychology.org/Is%20Working%20Memory%20Still%20Working.pdf|Baddeley, Alan D. Is Working Memory Still Working? European Psychologist 7, no. 2: 85-97. July 2002.]]

[[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022066302002210|Moreno, R., and Mayer, Richard E. Cognitive Principles of Multimedia Learning: The Role of Modality and Contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 2: p358-368. June 1999.]]

[[http://visuallearningresearch.wiki.educ.msu.edu/file/view/Mayer+%26+Sims+%281994%29.pdf/50533673/Mayer+%26+Sims+%281994%29.pdf|Mayer, R. E, and V. K Sims. For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of educational psychology 86: 389–389. 1994.]]
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