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learning_theories:cognitive_theory_of_multimedia_learning [2011/09/13 09:13]
jpetrovic [What is cognitive theory of multimedia learning?]
learning_theories:cognitive_theory_of_multimedia_learning [2023/06/19 18:03] (current)
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-Cognitive theory of multimedia learning is one of the [[learning_paradigms:​cognitivism#​learning_theories|cognitivist learning theories]] introduced by an American psychology professor [[http://​www.psych.ucsb.edu/​people/​faculty/​mayer/​index.php|Richard Mayer]] in the 1990s. This theory is a sub-theory of the [[learning_theories:​cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]] applied especially for multimedia learning, and therefore has many similarities with it. Basic assumption of Mayer'​s theory is that the **human working memory** has **two sub-components** that **work in parallel** (visual and verbal/​acoustic) and that learning can be more successful if both of this channels are used for information processing at the same time. +Cognitive theory of multimedia learning is one of the [[learning_paradigms:​cognitivism#​learning_theories|cognitivist learning theories]] introduced by an American psychology professor [[http://​www.psych.ucsb.edu/​people/​faculty/​mayer/​index.php|Richard Mayer]] in the 1990s. This theory is a sub-theory of [[http://​education.arts.unsw.edu.au/​staff/​john-sweller-726.html|John Sweller]]'​s ​[[learning_theories:​cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]] applied especially for multimedia learning, and therefore has many similarities with it. Basic assumption of Mayer'​s theory is that the **human working memory** has **two sub-components** that **work in parallel** (visual and verbal/​acoustic) and that learning can be more successful if both of this channels are used for information processing at the same time. 
  
  
 ===== What is cognitive theory of multimedia learning? ===== ===== What is cognitive theory of multimedia learning? =====
- 
-[[  http://​t0.gstatic.com/​images?​q=tbn:​ANd9GcRcaVF1nGSYY3y-pqAPDUZVRDnN0Yz_trOQpuQXheq38cjc76Ix|{{ ​ :​images:​model.png| ​ Human working memory model Image borrowed from: http://​t0.gstatic.com/​images... Click on the picture to follow the link.}}]] 
  
 Mayer'​s theory is based on three assumptions suggested by cognitive research(([[http://​scienceview.berkeley.edu/​research/​agents/​02.Mayer.Moreno.EPR.pdf|Mayer,​ RE, and R Moreno. Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational psychology review 14, no. 1: 87-99. March 2002.]]))(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])): Mayer'​s theory is based on three assumptions suggested by cognitive research(([[http://​scienceview.berkeley.edu/​research/​agents/​02.Mayer.Moreno.EPR.pdf|Mayer,​ RE, and R Moreno. Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational psychology review 14, no. 1: 87-99. March 2002.]]))(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])):
  
-  - **Dual-channel assumption** - The verbal and visual channels (similar to what Baddeley called //​phonological loop system// and //​visuospatial sketchpad//​(([[http://books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]]))) in our working memory are **separated** and can be used for processing information simultaneously thus enhancing process of learning. The suggestion that human working memory has more sub-components firstly came from the working memory models designed by [[http://​www.york.ac.uk/​psychology/​staff/​faculty/​ab50/​|Alan Baddeley]] and [[http://​www.york.ac.uk/​res/​wml/​ghitch.html|Graham Hitch]] in 1974(([[http://​dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/​Lit/​Articles/​BaddeleyA1974a.pdf|Baddeley,​ A. D., Hitch, G. J. Working Memory. In Bower, G.A. The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. 8. New York: Academic Press. pp. 47–89. 1974.]])) and reviewed by Baddeley in 1992(([[http://​www.sciencemag.org/​content/​255/​5044/​556.abstract|Baddeley,​ A. Working memory. Science (New York, N.Y.) 255, no. 5044: 556-559. January 31, 1992.]])). These findings where further incorporated to the [[learning_theories:​Dual coding theory]] by [[http://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​Allan_Paivio|Allan Paivio]](([[http://​www.ebook3000.com/Mental-Representations--A-Dual-Coding-Approach_123738.html|Paivio,​ A. Mental representations:​ A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1986.]])) and later by Mayer and his colleagues. +[[  http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRcaVF1nGSYY3y-pqAPDUZVRDnN0Yz_trOQpuQXheq38cjc76Ix|{{  :images:model.png|  ​Human working memory model Image borrowed from: http://t0.gstatic.com/images... Click on the picture to follow ​the link.}}]]
-   - **Limited capacity assumption** - As Miller'​s [[http://​tip.psychology.org/​miller.html|Information processing theory]] has shown, these channels have **limited capacity**(([[http://​cogprints.org/​730/​1/​miller.html|Miller,​ G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychology Review 63: 81-97. 1956.]])) and **limited time**((Peterson,​ L. and Peterson, M. Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. 1959.)) they can hold information +
-  - **Active-processing assumption** - Learning is an **active process** of collecting, organizing and integrating new information(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])). Similarities with [[learning_paradigms:constructivism|constructivist learning]] may be noticed in this definition. +
- +
-Cognitive theory of multimedia learning accepts terms of extraneous and intrinsic cognitive load, but instead of germane cognitive load introduced by [[learning_theories:​cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]], Mayer refers to the active processing and organizing which defines learning. +
- +
-Together with [[learning_theories:​cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]], the mentioned assumptions of cognitive theory of multimedia learning form a framework which serves as the **theoretical basis** for most contemporary research on learning. This research resulted in a number of so called //​principles//​ or //effects// describing different phenomena related to learning. Principles of cognitive theory of multimedia learning identified by Mayer((See: [[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer, Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]] Pp 63, 81, 96, 113, 134, 147, and 161.)) and other researchers are the following:​ +
- +
- +
- ^  Principle ​ ^  Description ​ ^^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:Modality principle]]__** ​ |Learning will be enhanced if presenting **textual information in an auditory format**, rather than in visual format, when it is accompanied with other visual information like a graph, diagram or animation.(([[http://www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0959475205000459|Ginns, Paul. Meta-analysis of the modality effect. Learning and Instruction 15, no. 4: 313-331. August 2005.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:Redundancy principle]]__** ​ |Capacity of both human information channels can unnecessarily be **overloaded by redundant information** presented through both channels thereby negatively affecting learning process.((For example see: [[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/​article/​pii/​S0747563210001445|Schmidt-Weigand,​ Florian, and Katharina ScheiterThe role of spatial descriptions in learning from multimediaComputers in Human Behavior 27, no1: 22-28. January 2011.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__Split-attention effect__** ​ |"//​when each source of information is essential for understanding ​the represented subject matter, learning improves when multiple sources of information are presented in a spatially and temporally integrated rather than separated format.//"​(([[http://​www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0959475209000358|Florax,​ Mareike, and Rolf Ploetzner. What contributes to the split-attention effect? The role of text segmentation, ​picture ​labelling, and spatial proximity. Learning and Instruction 20, no. 3: 216-224. June 2010.]])) Split attention effect can here be interpreted as //spatial// or //​temporal//​ resulting in spatial and temporal contiguity effect. ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:​Spatial contiguity principle]]__** ​ |Information processing is easier when two related visual information **sources are closer ​to one other**. For example, text placed near the referred place in the diagram will result in more successful learning than if it is placed under the diagram ​|^ ​ ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:​Temporal contiguity principle]]__**  |**Simultaneous presentation** of related information should be most similar to the way human mind operates and has provided good experimental results, same as presenting related multi-modal information with very short time differences. ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:​Coherence principle]]__** ​ |(Also called //seductive details effect//) claims that **extraneous material** that may be interesting or motivating but is irrelevant and generally **wastes learning resources**. ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:​Individual differences principle]]__** ​ |It emphasizes influence of prior knowledge and cognitive capacity to results of learning. Design effects are stronger for learners with little prior knowledge, and for high-spatial learners who have higher cognitive capacity to mentally integrate verbal and visual information. ​ |^  ^ +
-^  ^  ^^^  ^+
  
-Some of the effects ​and learning aids researched also in frames ​of cognitive theory of multimedia ​learning and [[learning_theories:​cognitive load theory]] ​are:+  - **Dual-channel assumption** - The verbal and visual channels (similar to what Baddeley called //​phonological loop system// and //​visuospatial sketchpad//​(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]]))) in our working memory are separated and can be used for processing information simultaneously thus enhancing process ​of learning. The suggestion that human working memory has more sub-components firstly came from the working memory models designed by [[http://​www.york.ac.uk/​psychology/​staff/​faculty/​ab50/​|Alan Baddeley]] ​and [[http://​www.york.ac.uk/​res/​wml/​ghitch.html|Graham Hitch]] ​in 1974(([[http://​dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/​Lit/​Articles/​BaddeleyA1974a.pdf|Baddeley,​ A. D., Hitch, G. J. Working Memory. In Bower, G.A. The psychology ​of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. 8. New York: Academic Press. pp. 47–89. 1974.]])) and reviewed by Baddeley in 1992(([[http://​www.sciencemag.org/​content/​255/​5044/​556.abstract|Baddeley,​ A. Working memory. Science (New York, N.Y.) 255, no. 5044: 556-559. January 31, 1992.]])). These findings where further incorporated to the [[learning_theories:​Dual coding ​theory]] ​by [[http://​en.wikipedia.org/​wiki/​Allan_Paivio|Allan Paivio]](([[http://​www.ebook3000.com/​Mental-Representations--A-Dual-Coding-Approach_123738.html|Paivio,​ A. Mental representations:​ A dual coding approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1986.]])) and later by Mayer and his colleagues. 
 +   - **Limited capacity assumption** - As Miller'​s [[http://​tip.psychology.org/​miller.html|Information processing theory]] has shown, these channels have limited capacity(([[http://​cogprints.org/​730/​1/​miller.html|Miller,​ G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychology Review 63: 81-97. 1956.]])) and limited time((Peterson,​ L. and Peterson, M. Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. 1959.)) they can hold information. Too much information can therefore cause //cognitive overload//​.(([[http://​www.uky.edu/​~gmswan3/​544/​9_ways_to_reduce_CL.pdf|Mayer,​ Richard, and Roxana Moreno. Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning. Educational Psychologist 38: 43-52, March 2003.]])) 
 +  - **Active-processing assumption** - Learning is an active process of collecting, organizing and integrating new information(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])). Similarities with [[learning_paradigms:​constructivism|constructivist learning]] may be noticed in this definition.
  
-^  ^  Effect ​ ^  Description ​ ^^^ +Together with [[learning_theories:cognitive_load_theory|cognitive load theory]], which offers ​a more detailed description ​of cognitive load types and possible causes ​of cognitive ​overloadthe mentioned assumptions ​of cognitive theory ​of multimedia ​learning ​form framework ​and **theoretical basis** for most contemporary ​research on learningThis research ​is mostly oriented on two goals:
-^  |  **__[[research_results:Signaling effect]]__**  |(//​Signaling//​ or //cuing//) presents the increase in the learning outcomes due to promotion of attention to relevant information. Signals are based on natural attention attractors like movement or contrast. In multimedia this can also be achieved through underliningarrows or color-coding.(([[http://​etd.lib.clemson.edu/​documents/​1252424615/​Visser_clemson_0050D_10312.pdf|Visser,​ R. D. Exploring different instructional designs of screen-captured video lesson: A mixed methods study of transfer of learning. PhD thesis. Clemson University. 2009.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **__[[research_results:​Segmenting effect]]__** ​ |Learning should be more efficient if a continued animation or narration could be split into more smaller parts.(([[http://​etd.lib.clemson.edu/​documents/​1252424615/​Visser_clemson_0050D_10312.pdf|Visser,​ R. D. Exploring different instructional designs ​of a screen-captured video lesson: A mixed methods study of transfer of learning. PhD thesis. Clemson University. 2009.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **Worked examples effect**(([[http://​www.tandfonline.com/​doi/​abs/​10.1207/​s1532690xci0201_3|Sweller,​ John, and Graham Cooper. The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra. Cognition and Instruction 2: 59-89, 1985.]])) ​ |The reduction in imposed ​cognitive load due to "//... a step-by-step **demonstration** ​of how to perform a task or how to solve a problem.//"​(([[http://​books.google.com/​books?​id=iKVhZ4wj82cC|Clark,​ Ruth Colvin, Frank Nguyen, and John Sweller. Efficiency in learning: evidence-based guidelines to manage ​cognitive ​load. John Wiley and Sons2006.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **Expertise reversal effect**(([[http://​www.cs.pitt.edu/​~chopin/​references/​tig/​kayluga_ayres.pdf.pdf|Kalyuga,​ Slava, Paul Ayres, Paul Chandler, and John Sweller. The Expertise Reversal Effect. Educational Psychologist 38: 23-31, March 2003.]])) ​ |"//​Instructional techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences when used with more experienced learners.//"​(([[http://​www.cs.pitt.edu/​~chopin/​references/​tig/​kayluga_ayres.pdf.pdf|Kalyuga,​ Slava, Paul Ayres, Paul Chandler, and John Sweller. The Expertise Reversal Effect. Educational Psychologist 38: 23-31, March 2003.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **Explanation prompts**(([[http://​www.springerlink.com/​content/​733216845622539k/​|Berthold,​ Kirsten, Tessa H. S. Eysink, and Alexander Renkl. Assisting self-explanation prompts are more effective than open prompts when learning with multiple representations. Instructional Science 37: 345-363, April 2008.]])) ​ |Prompting students to self-explain steps of a worked example or a procedure they'​re studying has a positive effect on conceptual knowledge.(([[http://​www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0747563210001652|Berthold,​ Kirsten, Heidi Röder, Daniel Knörzer, Wolfgang Kessler, and Alexander Renkl. The double-edged effects ​of explanation prompts. Computers in Human Behavior 27, no. 1: 69-75, January 2011.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **Collaborative ​learning**  |When the complexity of the material to be learned is low, individual learning is more effective and more efficient than collaborative. For complex materials, collaborative learning is superior since it allows sharing working memory load among participants.(([[http://​www.springerlink.com/​content/​puhvw0186j1h8258/​|Kirschner,​ Femke, Fred Paas, and Paul A. Kirschner. Individual Versus Group Learning as Function of Task Complexity: An Exploration into the Measurement of Group Cognitive Load. In Beyond Knowledge: The Legacy of Competence, edited by Jörg Zumbach, Neil Schwartz, Tina Seufert, ​and Liesbeth Kester, 21-28. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands,​ 2008.]] cited by [[http://​www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0747563210001494|Kirschner,​ Femke, Fred Paas, and Paul A. Kirschner. Superiority of collaborative learning with complex tasks: A research note on an alternative affective explanation. Computers in Human Behavior 27, no. 1: 53-57, January 2011.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  ​**Schema activation**  ​|"//​Activation and utilization of learners'​ prior knowledge.//"​(([[http://​www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0747563210002852|Kirschner,​ Paul A., Paul Ayres, and Paul Chandler. Contemporary cognitive load theory ​research: The good, the bad and the ugly. Computers in Human Behavior 27, no. 1: 99-105, January 2011.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  |  **Learner control** ​ |"//​Too much control causes cognitive overload and even experts might experience difficulties in selecting, sequencing and pacing huge amounts of information.//"​ (([[http://​celstec.org/​content/​learner-controlled-selection-tasks-different-surface-and-structural-features-effects-trans-0|Corbalan,​ Gemma, Liesbeth Kester, and Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer. Learner-controlled selection of tasks with different surface and structural features: Effects ​on transfer and efficiencyComputers in Human Behavior 27: 76-81, January 2011.]] cited by [[http://​www.sciencedirect.com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0747563210002852|Kirschner,​ Paul A., Paul Ayres, and Paul Chandler. Contemporary cognitive load theory ​research: ​The good, the bad and the ugly. Computers in Human Behavior 27, no. 1: 99-105, January 2011.]])) ​ |^  ^ +
-^  ^^^^  ^+
  
 +  * utilizing both information processing channels, and
 +  * managing cognitive load and avoiding cognitive overload.
  
 +Research results have revealed a number of so called [[research_results:​principles and effects]] describing different phenomena related to learning, instructional aids and ways of reducing cognitive load.
 ===== What is the practical meaning of cognitive theory of multimedia learning? ===== ===== What is the practical meaning of cognitive theory of multimedia learning? =====
  
-Principles ​of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning ​have very practical application in educational ​theoryAs stated by Mayer(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])), these principals ​suggest that students learn better+As mentioned, research in frames ​of cognitive theory of multimedia learning ​and [[learning_theories:​cognitive load theory]] has revealed ​number of [[research_results:​principles and effects]] introduced by Sweller(([[http://​www.csuchico.edu/​~nschwartz/​Sweller_2008.pdf|Sweller,​ J. Human Cognitive Architecture. In Handbook of research on educational ​communications and technology, 369-381Taylor & Francis, 2008.]])), ​Mayer(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=ymJ9o-w_6WEC&​printsec=frontcover&​dq=Mayer,​+Richard+E.+Multim%C3%A9dia+learning&​hl=hr&​ei=XMNrTeSmG43ItAbaprn3DA&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=1&​ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false|Mayer,​ Richard E. Multimédia learning. Cambridge University Press, 2001.]])), and a number of other researchers. Simplified, these principles and effects ​suggest that students learn better:
  
-  * from **words and pictures** than from words alone +  * from **words and pictures** than from words alone, 
-  * from **animation and narration** together than only from animation or narration or on-screen text +  * from **animation and narration** together than only from animation or narration or on-screen text, 
-  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **close** rather than far from each other on the page or screen +  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **close** rather than far from each other on the page or screen, 
-  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **simultaneously** rather than one after another +  * when corresponding words and pictures are presented **simultaneously** rather than one after another, 
-  * when extraneous interesting but irrelevant material is excluded rather than included +  * when extraneous interesting but irrelevant material is excluded rather than included, 
-  * when important information in the learning material is marked or emphasized +  * when important information in the learning material is marked or emphasized, 
-  * animation or text are broken down into smaller segments +  * when animation or text are broken down into **smaller segments**, 
-  * when they are presented with worked examples before they try to solve a problem on their own +  * when they are presented with worked examples before they try to solve a problem on their own, 
-  * when they are prompted to self-explain a step in a procedure +  * when they are prompted to **self-explain** a step in a procedure, 
-  * when they study complex material in collaboration with other students +  * when they study complex material in **collaboration** with other students, 
-  * when their prior knowledge is activated ​prior to learning new material +  * when their **prior knowledge is activate**d ​prior to learning new material, and 
-  * when they receive amount of guidance depending on their expertise level+  * when they receive amount of **guidance** depending on their expertise level.
  
-All of this design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high knowledge learners, and for high-spatial learners rather than for low-spatial learners.+All of these design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high knowledge learners, and for high-spatial learners rather than for low-spatial learners.
  
 +Still, all of the mentioned suggestions for more efficient learning should be implemented with caution, since real-life learning environments are always much more complex than laboratory conditions. For more details and research status on every of the mentioned suggestions visit the [[research_results:​principles and effects]] page. 
  
 ===== Criticisms ===== ===== Criticisms =====
Line 73: Line 51:
 ===== Keywords and most important names ===== ===== Keywords and most important names =====
  
-  * **Cognitive theory of multimedia learning**, **dual coding theory**, **visual and verbal/​acoustic channel**, **modality principle**,​ **redundancy principle**,​ **spatial contiguity principle**,​ **temporal contiguity principle**,​ **coherence principle**,​ **individual differences principle**+  * **Cognitive theory of multimedia learning**, **dual coding theory**, **visual and verbal/​acoustic channel**
   * [[http://​www.psych.ucsb.edu/​people/​faculty/​mayer/​index.php|Richard Mayer]]   * [[http://​www.psych.ucsb.edu/​people/​faculty/​mayer/​index.php|Richard Mayer]]
  
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