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learning_theories:sign_learning [2011/08/26 16:05]
jpetrovic [What is sign learning?]
learning_theories:sign_learning [2023/06/19 18:03] (current)
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 ===== General ===== ===== General =====
  
-[[http://​www.muskingum.edu/​~psych/​psycweb/​history/​tolman.htm|Edward Tolman]]'​s //sign theory//, introduced in the 1930s is a neobehaviorist theory that presents a bridge to [[learning_paradigms:​cognitivism]],​ which is emphasized in its other names: //purposive behaviorism//,​ //cognitive behaviorism//,​ //​sign-gestalt theory// or //​expectancy theory//​.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad,​ Aneeq. Edward C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.)) Learning, according to Tolman, is **acquisition of knowledge through meaningful behavior**. Still, Tolman believed that+[[http://​www.muskingum.edu/​~psych/​psycweb/​history/​tolman.htm|Edward Tolman]]'​s //sign theory//, introduced in the 1930s is a neobehaviorist theory that presents a bridge to [[learning_paradigms:​cognitivism]],​ which is emphasized in its other names: //purposive behaviorism//,​ //cognitive behaviorism//,​ //​sign-gestalt theory// or //​expectancy theory//​.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad,​ Aneeq. ​Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.)) Learning, according to Tolman, is **acquisition of knowledge through meaningful behavior**. Still, Tolman believed that
  
   * "//​...everything important ​ in psychology... can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.//"​(([[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman%20%281938%29%20the%20determiners%20of%20behavior%20at%20a%20choice-point.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C. The determiners of behavior at a choice point. Psychological Review 45, no. 1: 1–41, 1938.]]))   * "//​...everything important ​ in psychology... can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.//"​(([[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman%20%281938%29%20the%20determiners%20of%20behavior%20at%20a%20choice-point.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C. The determiners of behavior at a choice point. Psychological Review 45, no. 1: 1–41, 1938.]]))
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   * //The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships,​ which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.//​(([[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​Maps/​maps.htm|Tolman,​ E. Cognitive maps in rats and men. The Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208. 1948.]]))   * //The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships,​ which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.//​(([[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​Maps/​maps.htm|Tolman,​ E. Cognitive maps in rats and men. The Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208. 1948.]]))
  
-Instead of observing behaviors on molecular level (behaviors split into simple yet often meaningless elements), Tolman suggested **studying** them on the **molar level** (**whole, purposeful, goal-directed behaviors**). Molar behaviors are //docile//, which means characterized by //​teachableness//​. Mechanical behaviors like reflexes belong to the molecular level.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad,​ Aneeq. Edward C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.))+Instead of observing behaviors on molecular level (behaviors split into simple yet often meaningless elements), Tolman suggested **studying** them on the **molar level** (**whole, purposeful, goal-directed behaviors**). Molar behaviors are //docile//, which means characterized by //​teachableness//​. Mechanical behaviors like reflexes belong to the molecular level.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad,​ Aneeq. ​Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.))
  
 In his attempts to explain behavior, Tolman introduced a set of environmental and individual difference variables. Individual difference variables are heredity, age, previous training and special endocrine, drug or vitamin conditions (also called //HATE// variables).(([[http://​books.google.com/​books?​id=QTwOAAAAQAAJ|Hill,​ Winfred Farrington. Learning: a survey of psychological interpretations. Taylor & Francis, 1980.]])) This variables offer a rarely seen broad view over the theory of learning. In his attempts to explain behavior, Tolman introduced a set of environmental and individual difference variables. Individual difference variables are heredity, age, previous training and special endocrine, drug or vitamin conditions (also called //HATE// variables).(([[http://​books.google.com/​books?​id=QTwOAAAAQAAJ|Hill,​ Winfred Farrington. Learning: a survey of psychological interpretations. Taylor & Francis, 1980.]])) This variables offer a rarely seen broad view over the theory of learning.
  
-Based on conducted rats experiments,​ Tolman introduced the term of **//latent learning//​**.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad, ​A. Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.)) This type of learning does not require motivation or reinforcement. In one experiment, Tolman put two groups of rats in a maze with a reward hidden in it. Later, he changed the place where rats were put in the maze, but so that the second group of rats had to perform the same set of turns in order to reach food. The first group was more successful, showing that learning was not just a raw set of movements. Tolman offered an explanation that rats created a **"​cognitive map"** of the maze and used it to solve the problem. He confirmed this finding in some later experiments as well, but never tried to investigate this cognitive map.+Based on conducted rats experiments,​ Tolman introduced the term of **//latent learning//​**.(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad, ​Aneeq. Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward ​C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.)) This type of learning does not require motivation or reinforcement. In one experiment, Tolman put two groups of rats in a maze with a reward hidden in it. Later, he changed the place where rats were put in the maze, but so that the second group of rats had to perform the same set of turns in order to reach food. The first group was more successful, showing that learning was not just a raw set of movements. Tolman offered an explanation that rats created a **"​cognitive map"** of the maze and used it to solve the problem. He confirmed this finding in some later experiments as well, but never tried to investigate this cognitive map.
  
 What Tolman also concluded based on other experiments with rats is that **rewards** or **punishments** can only be used as **motivators for performance** of a learned behavior, but not as the initiators of learning. Tolman saw animals not just as simple mechanisms, but as intelligent organisms testing hypotheses based on their prior experience and capable of cognitive processes. What Tolman also concluded based on other experiments with rats is that **rewards** or **punishments** can only be used as **motivators for performance** of a learned behavior, but not as the initiators of learning. Tolman saw animals not just as simple mechanisms, but as intelligent organisms testing hypotheses based on their prior experience and capable of cognitive processes.
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 According to Tolman, learning occurs as learners **following signs** (stimuli) **to a goal**. Learning was about finding a way and **meanings instead of reproducing behaviors**. Organisms learn behavior route and relations rather than behavior patterns. There is no need for reinforcement when speaking about learning since the behavior is driven by a meaning. According to Tolman, learning occurs as learners **following signs** (stimuli) **to a goal**. Learning was about finding a way and **meanings instead of reproducing behaviors**. Organisms learn behavior route and relations rather than behavior patterns. There is no need for reinforcement when speaking about learning since the behavior is driven by a meaning.
  
-In the end Tolman, influenced by Guthrie, Freud and reinforcement theorists, concluded there are **six forms of learning**, each with its own characteristics:​(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad, ​A. Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.))(([[http://​books.google.hr/​books?​id=QTwOAAAAQAAJ&​pg=PA142&​lpg=PA142&​dq=Sign+Learning++Field+Cognition+Modes&​source=bl&​ots=yEGFOzBqbm&​sig=bwNS5ZInKDEPBNGBw3ek0mXHp0g&​hl=hr&​ei=EwF1TaC8NdOzhAe_5YlO&​sa=X&​oi=book_result&​ct=result&​resnum=2&​ved=0CCgQ6AEwAQ#​v=onepage&​q=Sign%20Learning%20%20Field%20Cognition%20Modes&​f=false|Hill, Winfred Farrington. Learning: a survey of psychological interpretations. Taylor & Francis, 1980.]]))+In the end Tolman, influenced by Guthrie, Freud and reinforcement theorists, concluded there are **six forms of learning**, each with its own characteristics:​(([[http://​fac.hsu.edu/​ahmada/​3%20Courses/​2%20Learning/​Learning%20Notes/​9%20Tolman.pdf|Ahmad, ​Aneeq. Principles of Learning. Chapter 12: Edward ​C. Tolman.]] Retrieved August 24, 2011.))(([[http://​books.google.com/​books?​id=QTwOAAAAQAAJ|Hill,​ Winfred Farrington. Learning: a survey of psychological interpretations. Taylor & Francis, 1980.]]))
  
   * **Cathexis**((Term taken from Freud'​s psychoanalytic theory of motivation)) - learned tendency to **associate certain objects with certain drives**. In example, vegans tend to satisfy their hunger with non-animal products (positive cathexis), and not meat (negative cathexis).   * **Cathexis**((Term taken from Freud'​s psychoanalytic theory of motivation)) - learned tendency to **associate certain objects with certain drives**. In example, vegans tend to satisfy their hunger with non-animal products (positive cathexis), and not meat (negative cathexis).
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 ===== Read more ===== ===== Read more =====
  
-[[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman%20%281938%29%20the%20determiners%20of%20behavior%20at%20a%20choice-point.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C. The Determiners of Behavior at a Choice Point. Psychological Review, 45, 1-41. 1938.]]+[[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman ​(1938) the determiners of behavior at a choice-point.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C. The Determiners of Behavior at a Choice Point. Psychological Review, 45, 1-41. 1938.]]
  
-[[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​Maps/​maps.htm|Tollman, E. Cognitive maps in rats and men. The Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208. 1948.]]+[[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​Maps/​maps.htm|Tolman, E. Cognitive maps in rats and men. The Psychological Review, 55(4), 189-208. 1948.]]
  
 [[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​formula.htm|Tolman,​ E. A new formula for behaviorism. The Psychological Review, 29, 44-53. 1922.]] [[http://​psychclassics.yorku.ca/​Tolman/​formula.htm|Tolman,​ E. A new formula for behaviorism. The Psychological Review, 29, 44-53. 1922.]]
  
-[[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman%20%281935%29%20the%20organism%20and%20the%20causal%20texture%20of%20the%20environment.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C, & Brunswik, E. The Organism and the Causal Texture of the Environment. 1935.]]+[[http://​wexler.free.fr/​library/​files/​tolman ​(1935) the organism and the causal texture of the environment.pdf|Tolman,​ E. C, & Brunswik, E. The Organism and the Causal Texture of the Environment. 1935.]] 
learning_theories/sign_learning.1314367503.txt.gz · Last modified: 2023/06/19 17:49 (external edit)